Tile based interleaving and de-interleaving for digital signal processing

ABSTRACT

Tile based interleaving and de-interleaving of row-column interleaved data is described. In one example, the de-interleaving is divided into two memory transfer stages, the first from an on-chip memory to a DRAM and the second from the DRAM to an on-chip memory. Each stage operates on part of a row-column interleaved block of data and re-orders the data items, such that the output of the second stage comprises de-interleaved data. In the first stage, data items are read from the on-chip memory according to a non-linear sequence of memory read addresses and written to the DRAM. In the second stage, data items are read from the DRAM according to bursts of linear address sequences which make efficient use of the DRAM interface and written back to on-chip memory according to a non-linear sequence of memory write addresses.

BACKGROUND

Digital signal processing is used in a wide variety of applications.Many of these applications are real-time in the sense that timeconstraints exist on the processing of the data in order for it to bemeaningful or useful to an end user. An example of this is digitalbroadcast streams, such as digital television and digital radio. Thedigital signal processing system needs to be capable of processing anddecoding the real-time streams rapidly enough to enable the data to beoutput as quickly as it is received (barring buffering).

Digital signal processing systems often utilise one or more dedicatedhardware peripherals in addition to more general-purpose digital signalprocessors. The hardware peripherals are processing blocks that aredesigned to perform a specific signal processing task in a rapid andefficient manner. For example, interleaving and de-interleaving is anoperation that is commonly performed for real-time data using a hardwareperipheral. Interleaving and de-interleaving are memory-intensiveoperations, and the hardware peripherals that perform this utilise anassociated dedicated memory device for re-ordering the data.

However, the requirements of different types of real-time data can varysignificantly. For example, the various different digital television andradio standards used around the world often have the real-time datastructured differently, e.g. using different types or parameters forcoding, interleaving, equalisation etc. If the digital signal processingsystem is to be flexible enough to be used with different standards,then the dedicated memory device used for interleaving/de-interleavingmust be sufficiently large to handle the standard with the largestmemory demands. As a result, the memory used with aninterleaving/de-interleaving hardware peripheral is frequentlyunderutilised.

An example of a memory device is a DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory)device. DRAM devices organise their stored content in pages, eachtypically a few thousand bytes in size. Each DRAM can only have alimited number of pages open at one time (typically four) and manyoverhead cycles are needed to open a page to access data.

The embodiments described below are not limited to implementations whichsolve any or all of the disadvantages of known digital signal processingsystems.

SUMMARY

This Summary is provided to introduce a selection of concepts in asimplified form that are further described below in the DetailedDescription. This Summary is not intended to identify key features oressential features of the claimed subject matter, nor is it intended tobe used as an aid in determining the scope of the claimed subjectmatter.

Tile based interleaving and de-interleaving of row-column interleaveddata is described. In one example, the de-interleaving is divided intotwo memory transfer stages, the first from an on-chip memory to a DRAMand the second from the DRAM to an on-chip memory. Each stage operateson part of a row-column interleaved block of data and re-orders the dataitems, such that the output of the second stage comprises de-interleaveddata. In the first stage, data items are read from the on-chip memoryaccording to a non-linear sequence of memory read addresses and writtento the DRAM. In the second stage, data items are read from the DRAMaccording to bursts of linear address sequences which make efficient useof the DRAM interface and written back to on-chip memory according to anon-linear sequence of memory write addresses.

A first aspect provides a digital signal processing system-on-chip,comprising: a first memory storing a plurality of data items arranged ina first sequence, each data item having an associated memory address onthe first memory and the plurality of data items comprising a subset ofa block of data items; a second memory; and a transfer engine coupled tothe first memory and the second memory and comprising a port to adynamic random access memory, DRAM, wherein the transfer engine isconfigured to transfer the plurality of data items directly from thefirst memory to the DRAM in a first memory transfer stage and totransfer the plurality of data items directly from the DRAM to thesecond memory in a second memory transfer stage, and wherein in thefirst memory transfer stage, the transfer engine is arranged to read theplurality of data items from the first memory according to a predefinednon-linear sequence of memory read addresses and to write the pluralityof data items to the DRAM, and wherein in the second memory transferstage, the transfer engine is arranged to read the plurality of dataitems from the DRAM according to bursts of linear address sequences,each burst of linear address sequences having a length selected based ona DRAM interface burst size, and to write the plurality of data items tothe second memory according to a predefined non-linear sequence ofmemory write addresses, such that the plurality of data items arearranged in a second sequence on the second memory that is differentfrom the first sequence and wherein one of the first sequence and thesecond sequence comprises row-column interleaved data.

A second aspect provides a method of performing an interleaving orde-interleaving operation on a block of data items in a digital signalprocessing system, the method comprising: reading, from a first on-chipmemory, a first plurality of data items stored in a first sequenceaccording to a predefined non-linear sequence of memory read addresses,wherein the first plurality of data items comprises a subset of theblock of data items; writing the first plurality of data items to adynamic random access memory, DRAM; reading, from the DRAM, the firstplurality of data items according to bursts of linear address sequences,each burst of linear address sequences having a length selected based ona DRAM interface burst size; and writing the first plurality of dataitems to a second on-chip memory according to a predefined non-linearsequence of memory write addresses, such that the data items arearranged in a second sequence on the second on-chip memory that isdifferent from the first sequence and wherein one of the first sequenceand the second sequence comprises row-column interleaved data.

A third aspect provides a computer program comprising computer programcode means adapted to perform all the steps of the any of the methodsdescribed above when said program is run on a computer. The computerprogram may be embodied on a computer readable medium.

A fourth aspect provides a method of performing an interleaving orde-interleaving operation substantially as described with reference toany of FIGS. 5-10 of the drawings.

The methods described herein may be performed by a computer configuredwith software in machine readable form stored on a tangible storagemedium e.g. in the form of a computer program comprising computerprogram code for configuring a computer to perform the constituentportions of described methods. Examples of tangible (or non-transitory)storage media include disks, thumb drives, memory cards etc. and do notinclude propagated signals. The software can be suitable for executionon a parallel processor or a serial processor such that the method stepsmay be carried out in any suitable order, or simultaneously.

This acknowledges that firmware and software can be valuable, separatelytradable commodities. It is intended to encompass software, which runson or controls “dumb” or standard hardware, to carry out the desiredfunctions. It is also intended to encompass software which “describes”or defines the configuration of hardware, such as HDL (hardwaredescription language) software, as is used for designing silicon chips,or for configuring universal programmable chips, to carry out desiredfunctions.

The above features may be combined as appropriate, as would be apparentto a skilled person, and may be combined with any of the aspects of theexamples.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Embodiments will be described, by way of example, with reference to thefollowing drawings, in which:

FIG. 1 illustrates a digital signal processing system;

FIG. 2 illustrates a schematic diagram of a transfer engine;

FIG. 3 shows schematic diagrams illustrating various example methods ofde-interleaving;

FIG. 4 illustrates an example of row-column operations performed on twoblocks of data using the transfer engine;

FIG. 5 shows schematic diagrams illustrating two further example methodsof de-interleaving;

FIG. 6 illustrates an example of the row-column operation of FIG. 4 withenhancements to counteract the limitations of DRAM devices;

FIG. 7 shows an example time interleaved block of data;

FIG. 8 is a flow diagram of an example method of de-interleaving;

FIG. 9 shows a grid representation of the data items stored in the DRAMat the end of the first stage of the method of FIG. 8 for an inputinterleaved block as shown in FIG. 7; and

FIG. 10 shows a grid representation of the data items stored in theon-chip memory at the end of the second stage of the method of FIG. 8for an input interleaved block as shown in FIG. 7.

Common reference numerals are used throughout the figures to indicatesimilar features.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Embodiments are described below by way of example only. These examplesrepresent the best ways of putting the embodiments into practice thatare currently known to the Applicant although they are not the only waysin which this could be achieved. The description sets forth thefunctions of the example and the sequence of steps for constructing andoperating the example. However, the same or equivalent functions andsequences may be accomplished by different examples.

Described below is a digital signal processing system that makes use ofboth general purpose digital signal processors (DSPs) as well asspecialised hardware peripherals. In order to enable efficient use ofmemory, the different elements of the system have access to a sharedon-chip memory. Data items can be written to or read from the on-chipmemory by a transfer engine, such as a direct memory access (DMA)controller. The on-chip memory comprises Static Random Access Memory(SRAM) and the transfer engine also has a port to a Dynamic RAM (DRAM),which may be external or on-chip. The transfer engine has an addressgenerating element which enables different sequences of data items to beread from and/or written to the memory, and such sequences may compriselinear and non-linear sequences of data items.

The term ‘linear’ is used herein in relation to reading/writingsequences of data items, to refer to reading/writing consecutive (orcontiguous) data items. In contrast, the term ‘non-linear’ is usedherein in relation to reading/writing sequences of data items, to referto reading/writing non-consecutive (or non-contiguous) data items andexamples of non-linear sequences are described below.

Any use of DRAM in the following description is intended to cover anyform of DRAM, including synchronous DRAM, double data rate (DDR) DRAM(which may be referred to as DDR RAM) and burst access DRAM. Asdescribed above, DRAM devices organise their stored content in pages andcan only have a limited number of pages open at one time. When accessinga DRAM of any type, patterns of data access that frequently accessdifferent pages can be inefficient because it takes many overhead cyclesto open a page. In burst access DRAM, the DRAM interface reads/writesbursts of 4, 8, 16, 32 or 64 (or more) consecutive bytes. Accesspatterns which use incomplete DRAM interface bursts are alsoinefficient.

The ability to read/write different sequences of data items enablesre-ordering operations, such as interleaving or de-interleaving, to beperformed on the data items on-the-fly, whilst the data items are beingtransferred between memory locations or from one memory to another (e.g.between the SRAM and the DRAM). This avoids the need for a dedicated(non-shared) memory to be included on the digital signal processingsystem for use with interleaving or de-interleaving, which in turnreduces chip area and cost. The different sequences used may be arrangedto counteract the performance limitations of certain types of memorydevices, such as DRAM (which is cheaper to use than SRAM in terms ofarea and hence cost and so larger DRAMs may be used), as is described inmore detail below.

In the following description, time interleaving/de-interleaving is usedby way of example only; however it will be appreciated that the methodsare also applicable to other forms of interleaving/de-interleaving, suchas bit interleaving/de-interleaving.

Reference is first made to FIG. 1, which shows the structure of anexample digital signal processing system-on-chip 100. The system 100comprises an on-chip memory 102 and a DRAM 112 connected to a transferengine 106. Both of the memory devices 102, 112 are used for the storageof data items and they may both provide shared memory spaces (e.g.storing data relating to the digital signal processing system, as wellas MPEG or other video stream-related data). The on-chip memory 102 canbe any suitable form of RAM, such as (but not limited to) SRAM, but notDRAM. The DRAM 112 may be on-chip or external to the chip (in the sensethat it is not directly accessible by the DSPs 104) and in the followingdescription, the term ‘on-chip’ memory is used to refer to on-chipmemory 102 which is a non-DRAM memory element, despite the fact that theDRAM 112 may also be on-chip memory (i.e. an integral part of thesystem-on-chip 100 as it is formed on the same piece of silicon).

Connected to the on-chip memory 102 are one or more DSPs 104. The DSPs104 are processors that are programmable to perform signal processingcalculations on data, such as, for example, fast fourier transforms andequalisation. Whilst not considered general-purpose processors, the DSPs104 are more configurable than the hardware peripherals described below.The DSPs 104 execute program code/instructions to read data from theon-chip memory 102, perform signal processing operations on the data,and write data back to the on-chip memory 102.

Also connected to the on-chip memory 102 is the transfer engine 106,which provides access to the on-chip memory 102 for a plurality ofhardware (HW) peripherals 108. In some examples, the transfer engine 106can be in the form of a direct memory access (DMA) controller. Thetransfer engine 106 provides a plurality of memory access channels (e.g.DMA channels) that can be used by the hardware peripherals 108 to enablethe reading or writing of data from or to the on-chip memory 102.

As noted above, the hardware peripherals 108 are specialised, dedicatedfixed-function hardware blocks that are configured to perform aparticular signal processing task. For example, one hardware peripheralmay be a specialised Viterbi decoding block, and another one may be aspecialised Reed-Solomon decoding block. The hardware peripherals mayalso be known as accelerators. Each of the hardware peripherals operatesindependently of each other. The hardware peripherals may besufficiently configurable to be provided with operational parametersspecific to their task, but they are not sufficiently configurable tochange their task (e.g. a Viterbi block cannot be reconfigured as aReed-Solomon block).

Therefore, the hardware peripherals are more specialised to a particulartask than the DSPs 104. However, the hardware peripherals are arrangedto perform their specialised tasks in a very rapid and efficient manner.Also connected to the on-chip memory 102 is a general control processor110, which can be used to initialise, configure and control theoperation of the digital signal processing system.

The digital signal processing system described above providesflexibility in the signal processing operations. For example, the systemcan be arranged to operate such that the different DSPs 104 and hardwareperipherals 108 process the data in any desired configuration orsequence. Each hardware peripheral or DSP can operate on one or moreblocks of data (also referred to herein as buffers of data) provided byother parts of the system and stored in the on-chip memory 102, andgenerates and stores one or more buffers of data to be used by otherelements of the system. This enables the digital signal processingsystem to be used for a variety of different types of signal, e.g. fordifferent broadcast/telecommunication standards.

The use of a common memory space provided by the on-chip memory 102enables the total amount of memory storage provisioned in thesystem-on-chip 100 to be reduced. Without the use of a common memoryspace, each processing element is provided with its own, dedicatedmemory. For example, each of the DSPs 104 may have their own workspacememory, the general control processor 110 has another separate memoryfor storing execution code and data, the hardware peripherals 108 haveseparate input and output buffers, and one or more additional memoriesmay be used for exchanging data between the processing elements.

Because the digital signal processing system is configurable in order toallow different communication standards to be implemented, each of theseseparate memories need to be separately dimensioned for the particularstandard that has the largest demand on any given memory. In otherwords, the DSP memory needs to be large enough to accommodate thestandard that has the largest demands on DSP memory. Similarly, thehardware peripheral buffers need to be large enough to accommodate thestandard with the highest demands on hardware peripheral buffers (whichmay be different to the standard with high DSP memory demands). As aresult of this, significant amounts of memory are generally unused bysome of the processing elements.

However, if a common memory space is provided by the on-chip memory 102,then the memory requirements of the different standards as a whole canbe taken into account (rather than their requirements on individualelements of the system). In other words, the on-chip memory 102 needs tobe large enough to accommodate the largest overall, total memory demandsof the standards. This has the effect of averaging the differing memoryrequirements between the standards (e.g. one standard might need moreDSP memory, but smaller buffers, whereas another standard may be theopposite). This has the effect of requiring a significantly lower amountof overall memory, and hence saves silicon area.

The common memory space provided by the on-chip memory 102 can thereforehold all the different types of data used by the system, such as digitalsignal processor workspaces, execution code and data for the generalcontrol processor, input and output buffers for one or more of thehardware peripherals, one or more buffers for exchanging data betweenprocessors, as well as other configuration data for the digital signalprocessing system.

Reference is now made to FIG. 2, which illustrates a schematic diagramof the transfer engine 106. The transfer engine 106 comprises a firstmemory port 202, which is arranged to connect to the on-chip memory 102,and a second memory port 204 which is arranged to connect to the DRAM112. The transfer engine 106 also comprises a plurality of peripheralports 206, each arranged to connect to an associated hardware peripheral108. The memory ports 202, 204 and peripheral ports 206 are allconnected to a crossbar 208, which enables any one of these ports to beconnected to any other of these ports.

The transfer engine 106 further comprises an address generating element210, which is coupled to both the memory ports 202, 204 and is arrangedto generate sequences of read and/or write addresses for either or bothof the memories connected to the memory ports 202, 204. In someexamples, the address generating element 210 may comprise a configurableaddress generator which may be programmed to operate in a number ofdifferent modes (e.g. linear and non-linear modes) and which may beconfigured to select one or modes of operation from a set of possiblemodes. In other examples, the address generating element 210 maycomprise one or more dedicated hardware blocks arranged to generatespecific sequences of addresses (e.g. a sequence using row-column modefor a particular arrangement of data items and a sequence using burstrow-column mode for a particular arrangement of data items). In someexamples the address generating element 210 may generate both linear andnon-linear sequences and in other examples, a direct connection may beused for the linear sequences and the address generating element may beused to generate only the non-linear sequences.

By generating non-linear sequences of read and/or write addresses, theaddress generating element 210 can perform non-linear reordering of dataitems stored on a memory connected to one of the ports of the transferengine 106 (e.g. on-chip memory 102 or DRAM 112). For example, FIG. 2illustrates how a first sequence 212 of data items stored on the on-chipmemory 102 can be reordered during a transfer to the DRAM 112. In theexample of FIG. 2, there are eight data items on the on-chip memory 102,which are stored at memory addresses denoted 0 to 7. In other examples,the memory addresses can start from a base address other than zero,and/or each individual data item can be larger than a single memorylocation on the memory device. In this example, these data items aretransferred to the DRAM 112, but are ordered in a second sequence 214that is different to the first sequence 212. For clarity, the data itemsin the second sequence 214 are stored at memory addresses denoted 0′ to7′ on the DRAM 112, although in other examples these addresses can startfrom a base address other than zero.

In a first example, the address generating element 210 can generate anon-linear read sequence of [3, 6, 4, 1, 2, 7, 0, 5] and provide thisread sequence to the first memory port 202. The address generatingelement 210 can also generate a linear write sequence of [0′, 1′, 2′,3′, 4′, 5′, 6′, 7′] and provide this to the second memory port 204(where the addresses on the DRAM 112 are denoted 0′, 1′ etc todistinguish them, for purposes of explanation only, from the addresseson the on-chip memory 102). This causes the first memory port 202 tofirstly read the data item from the first address in the read sequence(address 3), which is data item “A” in this example. This data item ispassed over the crossbar 208 to the second memory port 204, which writesthis data item to the first memory address in the write sequence(address 0′). This results in data item “A” being reordered from beingthe fourth data item in the first sequence 212 to being the first dataitem in the second sequence 214. This operation repeats by reading thenext address in the read sequence (address 6, address 4 etc) and writingthe corresponding data item (B, C, . . . ) to the next address in thewrite sequence (address 1′, address 2′, . . . ). As a result of this,the data items from the first sequence (denoted G, D, E, A, C, H, B, F)are now stored on the DRAM in the second sequence (A, B, C, D, E, F, G,H).

In a second example, the same re-ordering of data items can also beachieved by the address generating element 210 generating a linear readsequence of [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7] and a non-linear write sequence of[6′, 3′, 4′, 0′, 2′, 7′, 1′, 5′]. In this example, data item “G” isfirst read from address 0 on the on-chip memory, and written to address6′ on the DRAM, followed by data item “D” read from address 1 on theon-chip memory, and written to address 3′ on the DRAM, etc. Similarly,in a third example, the same re-ordering of data items can also beachieved by the address generating element 210 generating a non-linearread sequence and also a non-linear write sequence. One example of thiswould be a read sequence of [0, 2, 4, 6, 1, 3, 5, 7] and a writesequence of [6′, 4′, 2′, 1′, 3′, 0′, 7′, 5′].

In each of the above examples, the re-ordering from the first to thesecond sequence is performed on-the-fly during the direct transfer ofdata items from the on-chip memory 102 to the DRAM 112 by the transferengine 106. Similar operations may also be performed for transfers fromthe DRAM 112 to the on-chip memory 102, or from the on-chip memory toanother location in the on-chip memory and similarly for transfer fromDRAM to another address in DRAM.

The example above also showed the read and write address sequences beinggenerated in full before performing the transfer. However, thisgeneration of address sequences can also be performed concurrently withthe transfer, for example by generating one or more read and writeaddresses as one or more previous data items are being read/written.

The process described above enables the data items on the on-chip memory102 to be re-ordered into a different sequence as an integral part of amemory transfer operation to the DRAM 112 and similarly data items onthe DRAM 112 can be re-ordered into a different sequence as part of amemory transfer operation to the on-chip memory 102. This can be used toimplement interleaving or de-interleaving, e.g. by using an addressgenerating element 210 which is arranged to generate the read/writeaddress sequences according to an interleaving scheme.

FIG. 3 shows schematic diagrams illustrating various example methods ofde-interleaving. In the first schematic diagram 300, the de-interleavingis performed in a single transfer from on-chip memory 102 to on-chipmemory 102. In the subsequent two schematic diagrams 302, 304, there aretwo transfers: one transfer from the on-chip memory 102 to DRAM 112 anda second transfer from the DRAM back to the on-chip memory 102. In thesecond schematic diagram 302, de-interleaving of data items stored onthe on-chip memory 102 may be performed by writing the data items to theDRAM 112 according to a linear write sequence and then reading them backfrom the DRAM 112 using a particular non-linear sequence which may bereferred to as ‘row-column mode’ or ‘row-column interleaved’. Thisnon-linear sequence is described in detail below with reference to FIG.4. Alternatively the de-interleaving of data items may be performed bywriting data items to the DRAM 112 using row-column mode and thenreading them back linearly, as shown in the third schematic diagram 304in FIG. 3.

In all the implementations shown in FIG. 3 the de-interleaving processcannot start until all the interleaved data is in the input memory (i.e.the on-chip memory 102 shown on the left-hand-side of each of thediagrams in FIG. 3).

Row-column mode considers the data items to be arranged in one or moregrids or tables having a plurality of rows and columns. This isillustrated in FIG. 4, which shows a first block of input data items402, which (for illustrative purposes only) have contiguous memoryaddresses from 0 to 23, and a second block of input data items 404 which(again for illustrative purposes only) have contiguous memory addressesfrom 24 to 47. If we are describing row-column mode with reference tothe second example 302 in FIG. 3, these memory addresses are in the DRAM112. In the example shown in FIG. 4, the data items are considered tohave column breaks every six data items, as indicated by the dashedlines in FIG. 4. This means that the consecutive memory addresses areconsidered to be arranged along the columns of a grid having six rows(and this may be described as the data being written/read down thecolumns).

The data items presented in grid form are shown in FIG. 4, which shows afirst grid 406 for the first block of input data items 402 and a secondgrid 408 for the second block of input data items 404. Both the firstand second grids have six rows and four columns. It can be noted thatconsecutively addressed data items are arranged down the columns.However, in other examples, the data items can also be presented suchthat consecutive items are arranged along the rows instead, in whichcase the description below still applies but with references to rows andcolumns reversed.

The purpose of the row-column mode is to transpose each grid, such thatwhen the input data items (e.g. from DRAM 112) are arranged in thesequence traversing the columns of the grid, the output data items (e.g.as output to the on-chip memory 102) are arranged in the sequencetraversing the rows of the grid. For example, referring to grid 406, ifthe first four data items of the input data sequence are A, B, C, D(reading four items down the first column), then the first four dataitems of the output data sequence are A, G, M, S (reading four itemsalong the first row). A row-column operation such as this thereforechanges the order of data items in dependence on how many rows aredefined as being present in the grid.

In order to implement the row-column mode, the address generatingelement 210 generates a read and a write sequence that results in therow-column transposition. This can be achieved by generating anon-linear read sequence (e.g. from the DRAM 112) and a linear writesequence (as illustrated in FIG. 4 and described in more detail below),or by generating a linear read sequence (e.g. from the on-chip memory102) and a non-linear write sequence (e.g. as shown in third example 304in FIG. 3). In further examples, non-linear read sequence and non-linearwrite sequences can also be used in order to enable efficient memoryaccess as described below with reference to FIG. 6.

FIG. 4 shows the example of a non-linear read sequence 410, which can beseen to comprise non-consecutive memory addresses. In one example, theaddress sequence can be generated using an algorithm illustrated by thefollowing pseudocode:

N0 = rows * columns; N1 = rows; N2 = numBlocks * rows * columns; For ind= 1 to numItems nextItemAddr = a + o; a = a + N1; if a >= N0 a = a −N0 + 1; b = b + 1; if b >= N1 a = 0; b = 0; o = rem(o + N0, N2); end endend

Where “rows” (N1) is the number of rows in the grid (six in the FIG. 4example), “columns” is the number of columns in the grid (four in theFIG. 4 example), “numBlocks” is the number of blocks of data items (twoin the FIG. 4 example), and “numItems” is the total number of data itemsover all blocks (48 in the FIG. 4 example). Variables “a”, “b” and “o”are internal variables used within the algorithm that may be allinitialised to zero or one or more may be initialized to non-zero valuesin order to apply an offset.

After calculating the initial values for N0 (the number of rows in thegrid), N1 (the number of rows multiplied by the number of columns) andN2 (the product of the number of rows, the number of columns and thenumber of blocks of data items), the algorithm iterates through thenumber of data items present, calculating the next address in thesequence (“nextItemAddr”) at each iteration. Effectively, the algorithmskips a fixed number of data items from the input sequence (e.g. six inFIG. 4) until the end of a row is reached (determined by the first ifstatement), and then increments the starting point for that row by oneand repeats. The end of a block is detected by the second if statement,which resets the calculations but adds an offset calculated from theremainder operation, rem(.) (24 in FIG. 4). The process then repeatsuntil “numItems” is reached. Note that “numItems” can be set to a valuelarger than the total number of data items present, and, if so, thealgorithm wraps back to the first block once all the blocks have beenaccessed.

The read sequence 410 generated by the above algorithm is shown in FIG.4, with the top row showing the sequence for the first block (grid 406)and the bottom row showing the sequence for the second block (grid 408).Taking the first four items of the read sequence 410 as an example,these read from addresses 0, 6, 12, 18, which correspond to data itemsA, G, M, S from the input data items 402. This can be seen to correspondto the first row of grid 406.

The address generating element 210 generates a linear write sequence 412having consecutive memory addresses, such that when the read sequence410 and write sequence 412 are used by the transfer engine 106 the dataitems are read in a non-linear sequence and written in a linearsequence. Note that the write sequence in FIG. 4 has addresses from 0 to47 for simplicity, but in other examples the addresses can start fromany base address. The result of the combination of the read sequence 410and write sequence 412 can be seen in the first block of output dataitems 414 and the second block of output data items 416. By comparingthese output data items to grid 406 and 408, it can be seen that arow-column operation has been successfully performed.

The same result can also be obtained by generating a linear readsequence and a non-linear write sequence (e.g. as in the second example304 in FIG. 3), as follows (only the first block is shown for brevity):

Read Sequence:

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23Write Sequence:

0 4 8 12 16 20 1 5 9 13 17 21 2 6 10 14 18 22 3 7 11 15 19 23

The non-linear write sequence can be generated using similar techniquesto the non-linear read sequence described in detail above. The examplesabove illustrate how the address generating element 210 can be used toimplement an interleaving/de-interleaving operation such as a row-columnswap on a set of data items.

FIG. 5 shows schematic diagrams 502, 506 illustrating two furtherexample methods of de-interleaving which are more efficient in the waythat they interact with the DRAM 112. Both of these methods divide thetime de-interleaving process into two memory-to-memory transferoperations (on-chip memory to DRAM and then DRAM to on-chip memory) eachof which uses at least one non-linear sequence of addresses. Both of themethods also use a combination of row-column (R-C) mode (as describedabove with reference to FIG. 4, arrows 521 and 561) and burst row-column(B R-C) mode (arrows 523, 524 and 562-564).

Although FIG. 5 shows the data items being transferred from on-chipmemory 102 to the DRAM 112 and then back to the on-chip memory 102, itwill be appreciated that the data items may instead be written back to aseparate on-chip memory from the on-chip memory where the data itemswere initially read from or the data items may be written back to adifferent part of the on-chip memory 102. In an example, the data itemsmay be read (in the operations indicated by arrows 521 and 561) from apart of the on-chip memory 102 which may be referred to as a tilingbuffer and the data items may subsequently be written back (inde-interleaved form) to a separate part of the on-chip memory 102 (inthe operations indicated by arrows 524 and 564) which may be referred toas a de-interleaver output buffer. These two buffers may be of differentsizes. In the following description, any reference to data items beingtransferred from and then back to the same on-chip memory 102 is by wayof example only, and the methods described may also be used to transferdata items from one on-chip memory element to another (via the DRAM) orfrom one part of the on-chip memory 102 to another part of the on-chipmemory 102 (via the DRAM).

Burst row-column mode may be considered a variant of the row-column modedescribed above, or alternatively, row-column mode may be considered aspecific instance of burst row-column mode with a burst length of one.Burst row-column mode considers the data to be arranged in a grid havingrows and columns (as described above); however, rather than just readingone data item from each column whilst traversing along the row (as inthe row-column case) the burst row-column mode reads a predefined numberof consecutive addresses (where this predefined number is referred to asthe ‘burst length’, L) before skipping to the next column along the row(i.e. by skipping r-L data items, where r=number of rows in the grid).For example, referring to grid 406 of FIG. 4, if the burst length isthree, then the burst row-column mode firstly reads three consecutiveitems in one burst (items A, B, C), then moves to the next column andreads the next three consecutive items (G, H, I), followed by M, N, O,and then S, T, U. It then wraps backs to the first column and reads D,E, F, followed by J, K, L, etc. The burst row-column mode can thereforebe considered to be the same as the row-column mode, except that a groupof consecutive data items are read, rather than just one, oralternatively, row-column mode may be considered to be burst row-columnmode with a burst length equal to one.

A read sequence for the burst row-column mode can, in one example, begenerated using an algorithm illustrated by the following pseudocode:

N1 = rows; N3 = burstLength; N4 = rows * columns − burstLength; For ind= 1 to numItems nextItemAddr = a + o; a = a + 1; if a >= N3 a = 0; o =o + N1; if o >= N4 + N1 o = 0; elseif o >= N4 + N3 o = o − N4 ; end endend

The variables in this pseudocode are defined as set out above in thedescription of row-column mode. In addition, “burstLength” (N3) is thenumber of consecutive or contiguous items to read in each burst and N4is the product of the number of rows (N1) and the number of columnsminus N3. Note that write sequences for a burst row-column operation canalso be generated in a similar manner.

The burst row-column mode can be used to enable de-interleavingoperations to be performed efficiently with certain types of memorydevice, such as DRAM 112, particularly where the burst length (L) in BR-C mode is the same as or close to the DRAM interface burst size. Byselecting a burst length (or burst size) based on a DRAM interface burstsize in this way (or according to the other examples described below),this makes efficient use of the DRAM interface. In contrast, manyconventional de-interleaver access patterns attempt to consecutivelyread/write widely spaced apart data items, leading to inefficient memoryaccess with DRAM devices due to both incomplete (DRAM interface) burstsand the crossing of many DRAM pages.

For example, the row-column operation of FIG. 4 reads consecutive dataitems that are spaced apart by the number of rows in the grid. Inexamples where a large number of rows are present, this can result inaccesses that are widely spaced apart across the memory device,resulting in inefficient accesses from different DRAM pages. Referringback to the examples shown in FIG. 3, it can be seen that in the secondexample 302, reading in row-column mode from the DRAM is inefficient andin the third example 304, writing in row-column mode to the DRAM is alsoinefficient.

FIG. 6 illustrates an example of a de-interleaving operation which doesnot incur the inefficiencies of DRAM access associated with frequentlyaccessing different pages or partially filling bursts. This example isalso shown in the first schematic diagram 502 in FIG. 5. The example ofFIG. 6 generates the same row-column result as that in FIG. 4 (i.e. aswap with six rows, four columns and two blocks), but does so using manyruns of linear sequential memory accesses that result in efficientoperation of a paged device like DRAM. In the example of FIG. 6, thetransfer engine is reading a sequence of input data items from theon-chip memory 102, storing the data items on the DRAM 112 and thenreading the data items back from the DRAM 112 and writing them to theon-chip memory 102 (potentially overwriting their original locations)with the rows and columns swapped.

For purposes of explanation, the input data items 602 are the same asthose used in the example of FIG. 4. There are a total of 48 data itemshaving a consecutive sequence of memory addresses starting from zero.Firstly, the data items are read from the on-chip memory 102 inrow-column mode with six rows and two columns per block or tile. Asshown in FIG. 6, the data items may be considered to be arranged intiles 604 each having six rows and two columns. This size of tile isused herein by way of example only and in many implementations, the tilesize may be set equal to the DRAM interface burst size. A non-linearread sequence 606 to read along the rows of each of these tiles in turn(i.e. using row-column mode) is generated by the address generatingelement 210 as described above. A linear write sequence 608 is alsogenerated by the address generating element 210. The transfer engine 106reads from the on-chip memory 102 using the non-linear read sequence 606(arrow 521 in FIG. 5), and writes to the DRAM 112 using the linear writesequence 608 (arrow 522). The writing to DRAM in this manner is notinefficient, as it is writing linearly to contiguous addresses, andtherefore will only occasionally cross a DRAM page boundary if thenumber of data items is sufficient.

As a result of this operation, the data items 610 on the DRAM 112 can beseen to correspond to a row-column swap from the tiles 604. A non-linearread sequence 612 is then generated by the address generating element210 that reads these data items back from the DRAM 112. This readsequence is generated using the burst row-column mode, and is configuredto avoid inefficient access. The burst row-column mode in this exampleuses six items per burst, twelve rows and two columns. Because the DRAMread sequence 612 reads bursts of data items, these are located atconsecutive addresses on the DRAM, and hence are unlikely to cross pageboundaries and will also make efficient use of the bursts available onthe DRAM interface (especially if the address generator burst length, L,is close to the DRAM interface burst size). Therefore, significantlyfewer page boundaries will be crossed relative to a (non-burst)row-column access.

A non-linear write sequence 614 is also generated to write the dataitems back to the on-chip memory 102. This write sequence 614 is alsogenerated using the burst row-column mode, and in this example uses twoitems per burst, four rows and three columns. The combination of theread sequence 612 (arrow 523 in FIG. 5) and the write sequence 614(arrow 524) is such that the output data items 616 written back to theon-chip memory 102 are in the same sequence as if a basic row-columnoperation with six rows, four columns and two blocks were performed(this can be compared to FIG. 4), except that the data was stored on aDRAM 112 without incurring inefficiencies due to page boundaries andincomplete bursts. Furthermore, because the initial read from theon-chip memory 102 (arrow 521 in FIG. 5) used a row-column operationwith tiles of only two columns, this enables the transfer of data to theDRAM to begin as soon as one whole tile has arrived at the on-chipmemory 102, which is sooner than if a four column block is used as inFIG. 4. This can improve performance in the case of real-time data,where the data is arriving in a stream over time.

FIGS. 7-10 illustrate an example of another de-interleaving operationwhich does not incur the inefficiencies of DRAM access associated withaccessing different pages. This method is also shown in the secondschematic diagram 506 in FIG. 5. As can be seen from FIG. 5, this methodinvolves only linear interactions with the DRAM 112 within a burst, i.e.using burst row-column mode to both write to the DRAM (arrow 562) andread from the DRAM (arrow 563). As described above, this means that veryfew page boundaries will be crossed and DRAM interface bursts are usedefficiently and this improves the overall efficiency of the method.

For illustrative purposes only this method considers the data items tobe arranged in one or more grids or tables having a plurality of rowsand columns (as in the previous examples) and further uses the conceptof a tile which is formed from a set of data in the row-columnstructure. As described below, a tile may be sized according to the DRAMinterface burst or page size. It will be appreciated that the data inmemory is stored in contiguous memory locations.

FIG. 7 shows an example time interleaved block of data 700 comprising200 data items (addresses 0-199 are labelled) arranged in 10 tiles 702(T₀-T₉), each comprising 20 items. Where the DRAM 112 is a burst modeaccessed DRAM, the tile size may be selected to match the DRAM interfaceburst size and this further improves the efficiency of the method, asthe memory transfer (as described below) makes efficient use of the DRAMinterface. If the tile size does not match the DRAM interface burstsize, the tile size may alternatively be smaller than the DRAM interfaceburst size or there may be multiple bursts per tile. In many examples,where the tile size does not match the DRAM interface burst sizeexactly, the tiles are aligned to page boundaries in the DRAM and thismay provide significant improvements in the DRAM interface efficiency.As described in more detail below, the choice of tile size placesconstraints on the size of the on-chip RAM tiling buffer (i.e. theon-chip memory 102 from which data is read) because the method cannotstart until at least one entire tile is stored in the tiling buffer.

It will be appreciated that although the example time interleaved block700 in FIG. 7 comprises 200 data items, these blocks may besignificantly larger than this and may comprise thousands of data items.Furthermore, the arrangement of rows and columns within the timeinterleaved block may be set by the system in which the method is used.

The de-interleaving process in this example is divided into severalstages of memory-to-memory transfer, with each transfer (or ‘tilingjob’) transferring a number of tiles, as can be explained with referenceto the flow diagram shown in FIG. 8. The method shown in FIG. 8transfers N tiles in each tiling job and the value of N may be selectedto be equal to a column of tiles (e.g. N=2 in the example shown in FIG.7). In other examples, however, a tiling job may comprise a number ofcolumns of tiles (e.g. more than one column) in order to reduce thenumber of tiling jobs required. For the purposes of explanation only,the method shown in FIG. 8 will be described with reference to the timeinterleaved block of data 700 shown in FIG. 7 and with N=2. In thoseexamples where a tiling job comprises more than one column of tiles, themethod operates as described below and only the configuration of theaddress generator is changed (i.e. this tells the address generator toprocess more data).

The method can start once a minimum of N tiles (i.e. at least N tiles)from the time interleaved block are stored in the on-chip memory 102(block 802), e.g. once tiles T₀ and T₁ are stored in the on-chip memory102. As described above, the part of the on-chip memory 102 in whichthese interleaved tiles T₀ and T₁ are stored may be referred to as atiling buffer and as the first stage 81 of the memory-to-memory transferoperates on N tiles, this tiling buffer may only be sized to be able tostore N tiles of data. In an example, the tiling buffer may be anelasticity buffer that can be sized in a way to allow for one or moretiling jobs depending on the system throughput, the available memorybandwidth and the DRAM interface.

The first tile, T₀, is read using row-column mode from the on-chipmemory 102 (block 804 and arrow 561 in FIG. 5). The non-linear readsequence for this first tile which is used is therefore:

0 10 20 30 1 11 21 31 2 12 22 32 3 13 23 33 4 14 24 34where the numbers above correspond to the addresses of the data items inthe on-chip memory, as shown in FIG. 7. Referring back to the earlierdescription of row-column mode (and in particular the pseudocode exampleprovided), it can be seen that a data item (i.e. one data item) is readand then the next 9 data items are skipped before another data item isread. This is repeated until 4 data items in total have been read (thenumber of columns in a tile) and then the whole process is repeated withan offset of one data item (i.e. address 1 is read followed by 11), andso on until the whole tile has been read.

This sequence of data items is then written using burst row-column modeto the DRAM 112 (block 806 and arrow 562) with a burst length, L, equalto the number of data elements in a tile (e.g. L=20):

0′ 1′ 2′ 3′ 4′ 5′ 6′ 7′ 8′ 9′ 10′ 11′ 12′ 13′ 14′ 15′ 16′ 17′ 18′ 19′ 010 20 30 1 11 21 31 2 12 22 32 3 13 23 33 4 14 24 34where the first row corresponds to the addresses of the data items inthe DRAM, labelled 0′-19′ to distinguish them from the originaladdresses in the on-chip memory 102 from which the data items were read,which are shown in the second row.

These two operations (the read operation in block 804 and the writeoperation in block 806) are then repeated until all N tiles have beenwritten to the DRAM (‘Yes’ in block 808). At this stage, having writtenN tiles to the DRAM, all the stored data items may have been read fromthe on-chip memory 102 and in which case the on-chip memory may berefilled with a further N tiles of data items from the time interleavedblock (block 810). Alternatively, where there are already further tilesstored in the on-chip memory (e.g. at least N further tiles), the methodmay continue to read additional tiles (in block 804) and write them tothe DRAM (in block 806) without requiring refilling of the on-chipmemory (i.e. block 810 is omitted).

This first stage 81 is repeated until the entire time interleaved block700 has been read from the on-chip memory 102 and written to the DRAM(‘Yes’ in block 812), with the on-chip memory 102 being refilled (inblock 810) where appropriate. In this example, there will be fivetransfers, each transferring two tiles (as N=2 and the block 700comprises 10 tiles).

FIG. 9 shows a grid representation 902 of the data items (referenced bythe original address location in block 700) stored in the DRAM at theend of the first stage 81 for an input time interleaved block 700 asshown in FIG. 7. Alongside this grid 902 is a second grid 904 whichidentifies the addresses of each data item in the DRAM 122 (labelled0′-199′ to distinguish them from the original addresses 0-199 in theon-chip memory 102). In this grid representation, the original tiles arere-ordered (compared to block 700), although not de-interleaved, and there-ordered data items from a tile occupy consecutive memory addresses(e.g. T₀ is stored in addresses 0′-19′). As can be seen from FIG. 9, thegrid comprises 40 rows and 5 columns, such that each column of dataitems (where consecutive data items are arranged in columns) comprisestwo tiles. The boundary between the tiles in a column is marked by adotted line 906.

In the second stage 82 of the method, the data items are transferredback to the on-chip memory 102 (or to another on-chip memory element, asdescribed above) and a further re-ordering operation is used to completethe de-interleaving of the data. The first tile, T₀, is read from theDRAM 112 (block 814 and arrow 563 in FIG. 5) using burst row-column modewith a burst length, L, which is again equal to the number of dataelements in a tile (L=20 in this example), i.e. the read sequence is:

0′ 1′ 2′ 3′ 4′ 5′ 6′ 7′ 8′ 9′ 10′ 11′ 12′ 13′ 14′ 15′ 16′ 17′ 18′ 19′ 010 20 30 1 11 21 31 2 12 22 32 3 13 23 33 4 14 24 34where the first row corresponds to the addresses of the data items inthe DRAM 112 and the second row shows the original addresses in theon-chip memory 102 from which the data items were read.

The tile, T₀, is then written using burst row-column mode to the on-chipmemory 102 (block 816 and arrow 564). The burst row-column mode uses aburst length, L, which is equal to the number of columns in a tile inthe original time interleaved block 700, e.g. four in the example shownin FIG. 7. Data is therefore written to four consecutive addresses inthe on-chip memory, the next 16 addresses (number of columns in theoriginal time interleaved block=number of rows in the transposedblock=20, 20−4=16) are skipped and then data is written to the next fourconsecutive addresses and so on. The non-linear write sequence istherefore:

0″ 1″ 2″ 3″ 20″ 21″ 22″ 23″ 40″ 41″ 42″ 43″ 60″ . . . 80″ 81″ 82″ 83″ 010 20 30 1 11 21 31 2 12 22 32 3 . . . 4 14 24 34where the first row corresponds to the addresses in the on-chip memoryto which writes are directed, labelled 0″, 1″, etc to distinguish themfrom the original addresses in the on-chip memory 102 from which thedata items were read in the first stage 81 and these original addressesare shown in the second row.

It should be noted that the burst length used in the first two burstrow-column operations (arrows 562 and 563) which write to and read fromthe DRAM use the same burst length (e.g. L=20) and this third burstrow-column operation (arrow 564) which writes to the on-chip memory usesa different burst length (e.g. L=4).

This second stage 82 is then repeated, tile by tile (and using the sametile size as the first stage 81), until all the tiles have been writtento the on-chip memory 102 (Yes' in block 818).

FIG. 10 shows a grid representation 1002 of the data items (referencedby the original address location in block 700) stored in the on-chipmemory at the end of the second stage 82 for an input time interleavedblock 700 as shown in FIG. 7. Alongside this grid 1002 is a second grid1004 which identifies the addresses of each data item in the on-chipmemory 102 (labelled 0″-199″ to distinguish them from the originaladdresses 0-199 in the on-chip memory 102 and the addresses 0′-199′ inthe DRAM 112). In this grid representation, the original data items arede-interleaved, as can be seen from FIG. 10, such that the first tile T₀now comprises four rows and five columns (instead of five rows and fourcolumns, as in block 700), as shown by a dotted outline. As can be seenfrom FIG. 10, the grid for one de-interleaved block comprises 20 rowsand 10 columns.

It will be appreciated that although FIGS. 7, 9 and 10 show addressesstarting from a base address of 0, in other examples, the addresses maystart from any base address.

It can be seen from the above explanation and FIG. 8, that read/writejobs in the method may operate on a number of tiles (e.g. one or moretiles) and not the whole time interleaved block. This enables the methodto be optimized for the particular DRAM interface burst size, e.g. atile can be set up to be the same size as one DRAM interface burst and atiling job will then be an integer number of DRAM interface bursts (e.g.two in the example described above with reference to FIGS. 7, 9 and 10).The DRAM interface burst size, which is defined by the DRAM interface,may be set at the page or sub-page level within the DRAM and will dependupon the bus bandwidth and may be set such that the start of a burst isaligned with the start of a page and where possible fully completeswithin a page (to prevent inefficiencies due to memory paging). Asdescribed above, where the tile size does not exactly match the DRAMinterface burst size or be a multiple of the DRAM interface burst size,the tiles may instead be aligned to page boundaries in order to improvethe DRAM efficiency at a cost of unused DRAM capacity.

Although the description above and FIG. 8 show the method beingperformed in series, (i.e. the second stage 82 is performed after thefirst stage 81 has been completed), aspects of the method may beperformed in parallel such that tiles from one time interleaved blockmay be being read from the SRAM and written to the DRAM (in the firststage 81) and at the same time tiles from another time interleaved blockmay be being read from the DRAM and written to the SRAM (in the secondstage 82). This allows memory re-use because the operation of writing tothe DRAM (block 806) may use the same set of addresses as are being readfrom in the second stage 82 (block 814), as long as the timing is suchthat a particular address is read (in block 814) before it isover-written (in block 806) with data items from another timeinterleaved block.

The method shown in FIG. 8 and described above divides the operation oftransposing the grid of data items (in order to perform de-interleaving)into two separate parts. A first part of the transposition is performedwhen reading from the SRAM (block 804 and arrow 561 in FIG. 5) andwriting to the DRAM (block 806 and arrow 562) and the second part of thetransposition is performed when reading from the DRAM (block 814 andarrow 563) and writing back to the SRAM (block 816 and arrow 564). Allthese transpositions use non-linear sequences of addresses; however,different non-linear sequences are used. In the first part, row-columnmode is used for the read from SRAM (burst length=1) and in the secondpart, burst row-column mode is used to write to the SRAM (burstlength=number of columns in a tile). The interactions with the DRAM(writing in block 806 and reading in block 814) use burst row-columnmode with a burst length which is equal to the number of data elementsin a tile (e.g. L=20 in the example shown in FIGS. 7-10).

The methods described above with reference to FIG. 5 (example 506) and7-10 use the available DRAM (and in particular burst accessed DRAM)bandwidth efficiently because of the use of a multi-stage processinvolving transfer of tiles of data (instead of the entire timeinterleaved block), where the tile size is selected according to theDRAM interface burst size. The arrangement of tiles is specific to aparticular implementation and the methods described above may be appliedto any arrangement of tiles and any number of data items per tile.

For example, where the method is used in DVB-T2, the number of tiles ina column (N) may be set equal to the number of Forward Error Correction(FEC) blocks, such that the examples shown in FIGS. 7-10 may correspondto a scenario where there are two FEC blocks. In other examples theremay be three FEC blocks so N=3 and three tiles will be transferred fromthe SRAM to the DRAM in a tiling job and written to consecutiveaddresses in the DRAM.

The methods described above, the de-interleaving process is divided intoseveral stages. Using the methods described, it is not necessary tostore the entire interleaved block of data in the tiling buffer beforethe de-interleaving process can start. As described with reference toFIG. 8, it is only necessary to have N tiles stored in the tiling bufferbefore the method starts.

The methods described above with reference to FIG. 5 (example 506) and7-10 may be implemented using an address generating element 210 as shownin FIG. 2. This address generating element 210 may be configurable ormay comprise specific hardware logic arranged to generate the required(pre-defined) non-linear address sequences which are used in aparticular implementation of the method (e.g. for a particulararrangement of tiles).

The methods described above may be used for de-interleaving anyinterleaved block of data. Example applications include OFDM signals andin particular Digital Terrestrial Television (DTT) signals such asDVB-T2; however, the methods are not limited to OFDM, DTT or DVB-T2. Themethods described above may also be used for interleaving data to forman interleaved block of data. To use the methods described above forinterleaving, rather than de-interleaving, the method steps remain thesame and the difference is that the input data (e.g. as stored in block802) comprises de-interleaved data (and not interleaved data) and theoutput data (e.g. as written back to the SRAM at the end of FIG. 8)comprises interleaved data (and not de-interleaved data).

The term “processor” and “computer” is used herein to refer to anydevice with processing capability such that it can execute instructions.Those skilled in the art will realize that such processing capabilitiesare incorporated into many different devices and therefore the term“computer” includes set top boxes, media players, digital radios, PCs,servers, mobile telephones, personal digital assistants and many otherdevices.

Those skilled in the art will realize that storage devices utilized tostore program instructions or data can be distributed across a network.For example, a remote computer may store an example of a processdescribed as software. A local or terminal computer may access theremote computer and download a part or all of the software to run theprogram. Alternatively, the local computer may download pieces of thesoftware as needed, or execute some software instructions at the localterminal and some at the remote computer (or computer network). Thoseskilled in the art will also realize that by utilizing conventionaltechniques known to those skilled in the art that all, or a portion ofthe software instructions may be carried out by a dedicated circuit,programmable logic array, or the like.

A particular reference to “logic” refers to structure that performs afunction or functions. An example of logic includes circuitry that isarranged to perform those function(s). For example, such circuitry mayinclude transistors and/or other hardware elements available in amanufacturing process. Such transistors and/or other elements may beused to form circuitry or structures that implement and/or containmemory, such as registers, flip flops, or latches, logical operators,such as Boolean operations, mathematical operators, such as adders,multipliers, or shifters, and interconnect, by way of example. Suchelements may be provided as custom circuits or standard cell libraries,macros, or at other levels of abstraction. Such elements may beinterconnected in a specific arrangement. Logic may include circuitrythat is fixed function and circuitry can be programmed to perform afunction or functions; such programming may be provided from a firmwareor software update or control mechanism. Logic identified to perform onefunction may also include logic that implements a constituent functionor sub-process. In an example, hardware logic has circuitry thatimplements a fixed function operation, or operations, state machine orprocess.

Any range or device value given herein may be extended or alteredwithout losing the effect sought, as will be apparent to the skilledperson.

It will be understood that the benefits and advantages described abovemay relate to one embodiment or may relate to several embodiments. Theembodiments are not limited to those that solve any or all of the statedproblems or those that have any or all of the stated benefits andadvantages.

Any reference to “an” item refers to one or more of those items. Theterm “comprising” is used herein to mean including the method blocks orelements identified, but that such blocks or elements do not comprise anexclusive list and an apparatus may contain additional blocks orelements and a method may contain additional operations or elements.

The steps of the methods described herein may be carried out in anysuitable order, or simultaneously where appropriate. Additionally,individual blocks may be deleted from any of the methods withoutdeparting from the spirit and scope of the subject matter describedherein. Aspects of any of the examples described above may be combinedwith aspects of any of the other examples described to form furtherexamples without losing the effect sought.

It will be understood that the above description of a preferredembodiment is given by way of example only and that variousmodifications may be made by those skilled in the art. Although variousembodiments have been described above with a certain degree ofparticularity, or with reference to one or more individual embodiments,those skilled in the art could make numerous alterations to thedisclosed embodiments without departing from the spirit or scope of theexamples.

What is claimed is:
 1. A digital signal processing system, comprising: amemory space comprising a first storage region and a second storageregion, the first storage region arranged to store a plurality of dataitems arranged in a first sequence; and a transfer engine configured tointerface between the memory space and a dynamic random access memory(DRAM); wherein, during a first transfer, the transfer engine isarranged to read the plurality of data items from the first storageregion according to a predefined non-linear or non-consecutive sequenceof memory read addresses and to write the plurality of data items to theDRAM, and wherein, during a subsequent transfer, the transfer engine isarranged to read the plurality of data items from the DRAM according tolinear or consecutive address sequences, and to write the plurality ofdata items to the second storage region according to a predefinednon-linear or non-consecutive sequence of memory write addresses, suchthat the plurality of data items are arranged in a second sequence inthe second storage region that is different from the first sequence andwherein the second sequence is either interleaved or de-interleaved withrespect to the first sequence.
 2. The digital signal processing systemaccording to claim 1, wherein the memory space is static random accessmemory (SRAM).
 3. The digital signal processing system according toclaim 1, further comprising the DRAM.
 4. The digital signal processingsystem according to claim 1, wherein the plurality of data itemscomprises a subset of a block of data items and the transfer engine isfurther arranged to perform a plurality of transfers until all the blockof data items has been written to the second storage region.
 5. Thedigital signal processing system according to claim 1, furthercomprising at least one address generating element arranged to generatethe predefined non-linear or non-consecutive sequence of memory readaddresses and the predefined non-linear or non-consecutive sequence ofmemory write addresses.
 6. The digital signal processing systemaccording to claim 1, wherein the plurality of data items comprises asubset of a block of data items and the block of data items is definedas being arranged as a grid comprising a number of rows of data itemsand a number of columns of data items.
 7. The digital signal processingsystem according to claim 6, wherein the grid further comprises aplurality of tiles, each tile comprising a rectangular portion of thegrid and further comprising R rows and C columns of data items andwherein the plurality of data items comprises one or more tiles.
 8. Thedigital signal processing system according to claim 7, wherein thepredefined non-linear or non-consecutive sequence of memory readaddresses comprises, for each tile in the first plurality of data items:a sequence of non-consecutive memory addresses separated by a fixednumber of memory addresses and starting at an initial starting address,the fixed number corresponding to one less than the number of rows inthe grid, until a boundary of the tile is reached, followed by one ormore additional sequences of non-consecutive memory addresses, eachadditional sequence starting at an offset initial starting address. 9.The digital signal processing system according to claim 7, wherein thepredefined non-linear or non-consecutive sequence of memory writeaddresses comprises: a sequence of groups of C consecutive memoryaddresses separated by a fixed number of memory addresses in the secondmemory and starting at an initial starting address in the second memory,the fixed number corresponding to C less than the number of columns inthe grid.
 10. The digital signal processing system according to claim 7,wherein the plurality of data items comprises a tile of the grid. 11.The digital signal processing system according to claim 7, whereinduring the subsequent transfer, the linear or consecutive addresssequences comprises a sequence of X consecutive memory addressesseparated by a fixed number of memory addresses in the second storageregion and starting at an initial starting address in the second storageregion, where X is equal to the number of data items in a tile of thegrid.
 12. The digital signal processing system according to claim 7,wherein during the first transfer, the transfer engine is arranged towrite the plurality of data items to the DRAM according to linear orconsecutive address sequences, each linear or consecutive addresssequence having a length selected based on a DRAM interface burst size.13. The digital signal processing system according to claim 12, whereinduring the first transfer, the linear or consecutive address sequencescomprises a sequence of X consecutive memory addresses separated by afixed number of memory addresses in the second storage region andstarting at an initial starting address in the second storage region,where X is equal to the number of data items in a tile of the grid. 14.The digital signal processing system according to claim 7, wherein atile is sized based on a size of the DRAM interface burst.
 15. A methodof performing an interleaving or de-interleaving operation on data itemsin a digital signal processing system, the method comprising: reading,from a first storage region of a memory space, a first plurality of dataitems stored in a first sequence according to a predefined non-linear ornon-consecutive sequence of memory read addresses; writing the firstplurality of data items to a dynamic random access memory (DRAM);reading, from the DRAM, the first plurality of data items according tolinear or consecutive address sequences; and writing the first pluralityof data items to a second storage region of the memory space accordingto a predefined non-linear or non-consecutive sequence of memory writeaddresses, such that the data items are arranged in a second sequence inthe second storage region that is different from the first sequence andwherein the second sequence is either interleaved or de-interleaved withrespect to the first sequence.
 16. The method according to claim 15,wherein the first plurality of data items comprises a subset of a blockof data items, wherein the block of data items is defined as beingarranged as a grid comprising a number of rows of data items and anumber of columns of data items, the grid further comprising a pluralityof tiles, each tile comprising a rectangular portion of the grid andfurther comprising R rows and C columns of data items and wherein thefirst plurality of data items comprises one or more tiles, and whereinreading, from a first storage region, a first plurality of data itemsstored in a first sequence according to a predefined non-linear ornon-consecutive sequence of memory read addresses comprises, for eachtile in the first plurality of data items: (i) reading a data item at aninitial starting address in the first storage region; (ii) skipping afixed number of data items, the fixed number corresponding to one lessthan the number of rows in the grid; (iii) reading a data item; (iv)repeating steps (ii) and (iii) until a boundary of the tile is reached;(v) adding an offset to the initial starting address; and (vi) repeatingsteps (i)-(v) until each data item in the tile has been read.
 17. Themethod according to claim 15, wherein the first plurality of data itemscomprises a subset of a block of data items, wherein the block of dataitems is defined as being arranged as a grid comprising a number of rowsof data items and a number of columns of data items, the grid furthercomprising a plurality of tiles, each tile comprising a rectangularportion of the grid and further comprising R rows and C columns of dataitems and wherein the first plurality of data items comprises one ormore tiles, and wherein writing the first plurality of data items to asecond storage region according to a predefined non-linear ornon-consecutive sequence of memory write addresses comprises: (i)writing C data items from the first plurality of data items to aplurality of consecutive addresses in the second storage region,starting at an initial starting address in the second storage region forthe tile; (ii) skipping a fixed number of addresses in the secondstorage region, the fixed number corresponding to C less than the numberof columns in the grid; (iii) writing C data items from the firstplurality of data items to a plurality of consecutive addresses in thesecond storage region; and (iv) repeating steps (ii) and (iii).
 18. Themethod according to claim 15, wherein the first plurality of data itemscomprises a subset of a block of data items, wherein the block of dataitems is defined as being arranged as a grid comprising a number of rowsof data items and a number of columns of data items, the grid furthercomprising a plurality of tiles, each tile comprising a rectangularportion of the grid and further comprising R rows and C columns of dataitems and wherein the first plurality of data items comprises one ormore tiles, and wherein writing the first plurality of data items to theDRAM comprises: (i) writing X data items from the first plurality ofdata items to a plurality of consecutive addresses in the DRAM, startingat an initial starting address in the DRAM for the tile; (ii) skipping afixed number of addresses in the DRAM; (iii) writing X data items fromthe first plurality of data items to a plurality of consecutiveaddresses in the DRAM; and (iv) repeating steps (ii) and (iii), whereinX is equal to the number of data items in a tile of the grid.
 19. Themethod according to claim 15, wherein the first plurality of data itemscomprises a subset of a block of data items, wherein the block of dataitems is defined as being arranged as a grid comprising a number of rowsof data items and a number of columns of data items, the grid furthercomprising a plurality of tiles, each tile comprising a rectangularportion of the grid and further comprising R rows and C columns of dataitems and wherein the first plurality of data items comprises one ormore tiles, and wherein reading the first plurality of data items fromthe DRAM according to linear or consecutive address sequences comprises:(i) reading X data items from the first plurality of data items from aplurality of consecutive addresses in the DRAM, starting at an initialstarting address in the DRAM; (ii) skipping a fixed number of addressesin the DRAM; (iii) reading X data items from the first plurality of dataitems from a plurality of consecutive addresses in the DRAM; and (iv)repeating steps (ii) and (iii), wherein X is equal to the number of dataitems in a tile of the grid.
 20. A non-transitory computer readablestorage medium having encoded thereon computer readable code configuredto cause a method of performing an interleaving or de-interleavingoperation on data items in a digital signal processing system to beperformed when the code is run, the method comprising: reading, from afirst storage region of a memory space, a first plurality of data itemsstored in a first sequence according to a predefined non-linear ornon-consecutive sequence of memory read addresses; writing the firstplurality of data items to a dynamic random access memory (DRAM);reading, from the DRAM, the first plurality of data items according tolinear or consecutive address sequences; and writing the first pluralityof data items to a second storage region of the memory space accordingto a predefined non-linear or non-consecutive sequence of memory writeaddresses, such that the data items are arranged in a second sequence inthe second storage region that is different from the first sequence andwherein the second sequence is either interleaved or de-interleaved withrespect to the first sequence.